The Development of Labor Unions
Contents
“To be free, the workers must have choice. To have choice they must retain in their own hands the right to determine under what conditions they will work.”
— Samuel Gompers
Beginning in the late 18th century, industrialization steadily replaced the earlier system of home-based production, often referred to as the cottage industry. This shift marked the beginning of a profound transformation in how goods were produced. Small-scale, skilled artisans were replaced by machines operated by unskilled laborers in urban factories. These large, steam-powered manufacturing centers—packed with whirring gears and pounding machinery—turned workers into anonymous parts of a larger industrial system, performing repetitive, monotonous tasks for long hours.
Factory owners quickly realized the economic advantage of building in urban centers where labor was plentiful. With a constant influx of immigrants and rural migrants into cities, the labor market became oversaturated. This abundance of workers allowed employers to keep wages low, often at the expense of health and safety. Men, women, and even children worked 12 or more hours a day in dangerous and poorly ventilated factories for meager pay, with little protection from injury or exploitation.
America’s industrial growth outpaced that of Europe. Natural resources like coal and iron fueled New England’s early factories, and its network of rivers and ports made transporting goods more efficient. Infrastructure improvements—such as canals and railroads—expanded trade routes and accelerated the movement of both goods and people.
The rapid industrial boom and grim labor conditions sparked the rise of labor unions. Driven by the desire for shorter workdays, safer conditions, better wages, and the abolition of child labor, workers began to organize. Many early labor unions met resistance, but they laid the foundation for future labor rights.
National Labor Union Efforts
In 1866, the National Labor Union (NLU) emerged as the first major attempt to organize workers nationally. Comprised of farmers and reformers, the NLU petitioned Congress for an eight-hour workday and other reforms. While it failed to achieve its legislative goals, the NLU successfully raised awareness about labor issues and fostered a national conversation. It dissolved in 1873 during an economic downturn.
The Knights of Labor, founded in 1869 in Philadelphia, represented a more inclusive approach. The union welcomed skilled and unskilled laborers, women, African Americans, and even employers. Under its broad tent, the Knights campaigned for an eight-hour workday, an end to child labor, and improved workplace conditions. By 1886, membership swelled to over 700,000, making it one of the most influential unions of its time.
Despite its early success, the Knights of Labor declined after being associated with the Haymarket Riot of 1886 in Chicago. What began as a peaceful rally for labor rights turned violent when a bomb was thrown at police, killing seven officers. Though the bomber was never identified, several union leaders were executed after being convicted of conspiracy. The event damaged public opinion of labor activism and associated it with radicalism and violence.
As the Knights faded, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) rose under the leadership of Samuel Gompers. Focused on pragmatic goals—like raising wages, shortening work hours, and improving working conditions—the AFL prioritized skilled workers and aimed to protect existing unions. Unlike the Knights, the AFL avoided sweeping reforms and radical ideology, making it more palatable to the broader public.
Challenges of Early Labor Unions
Early unions were not immune to prejudice. Many excluded African Americans, women, Catholics, and immigrants—especially those from Southern and Eastern Europe. Dominated by white, Anglo-Saxon Protestants (WASPs), these unions often reflected the biases of the larger society. Black workers in particular were frequently barred from membership or offered only segregated locals.
Government Response to Organized Labor
In the 19th century, the U.S. government generally viewed labor unions as a threat to business and economic stability. Courts often sided with business interests, and federal troops were regularly deployed to break up strikes. A notable setback came in 1895 when the Supreme Court, in a narrow interpretation of the Sherman Antitrust Act, ruled that strikes disrupted interstate commerce and were therefore illegal.
Public opinion began to shift following the tragic Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in 1911, where 146 garment workers—mostly young immigrant women—died due to locked exits and unsafe conditions. The disaster galvanized support for labor reform and led to increased state regulation.
In 1913, the federal government created the Department of Labor to enforce labor laws and collect data on working conditions. The following year, Congress passed the Clayton Antitrust Act, which clarified that labor unions were not subject to antitrust laws and prohibited federal injunctions against lawful strikes and picketing.
Still, it wasn’t until the economic devastation of the Great Depression that major federal labor protections were enacted. In 1933, President Franklin D. Roosevelt included worker protections in his National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), establishing maximum hours, minimum wages, and the right to unionize. Though the Supreme Court struck down the NIRA in 1935, it was quickly replaced by the Wagner Act, also known as the National Labor Relations Act, which guaranteed workers the right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining.
The story of American labor is one of perseverance, struggle, and eventual progress. Through strikes, setbacks, and legislation, workers carved out essential rights that remain central to modern labor law. While early unions were far from perfect, their legacy shaped the workplace protections we rely on today.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ): The Response of Labor
What is a labor union?
A labor union is an organized group of workers who unite to negotiate with employers over wages, working conditions, benefits, and other employment issues. Unions use collective bargaining to improve their members’ quality of life and workplace rights.
Why did labor unions form in the 19th century?
Labor unions formed in response to long working hours, low wages, unsafe working conditions, and child labor. As industrialization expanded, workers faced increasing exploitation, which led them to organize for better treatment.
What were the goals of early labor unions like the Knights of Labor?
The Knights of Labor aimed to secure an eight-hour workday, end child labor, promote equal pay for equal work, and improve workplace conditions. They also supported broad social reforms and included diverse groups in their membership.
What was the Haymarket Riot and why is it important?
The Haymarket Riot was a violent clash in 1886 between labor protesters and police in Chicago. A bomb was thrown during the rally, killing several officers. Though the culprit was never identified, the event harmed the public image of labor unions, especially the Knights of Labor, and led to increased suspicion of organized labor.
How did the government initially respond to labor unions?
Early government responses were largely hostile. Courts used antitrust laws to declare strikes illegal, and state and federal troops were often sent to suppress labor actions. Over time, especially after high-profile tragedies like the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire, public and government attitudes began to shift.
What role did Samuel Gompers and the American Federation of Labor play?
Samuel Gompers founded the AFL and focused on practical economic goals like better wages, shorter work hours, and safer conditions. The AFL excluded unskilled workers and was more conservative than earlier unions, which helped it gain broader acceptance.
What laws eventually protected workers’ rights to unionize?
Key legislation includes the Clayton Antitrust Act (1914), which exempted unions from antitrust laws, and the Wagner Act (1935), which guaranteed workers’ rights to organize, join unions, and engage in collective bargaining.
How did the Great Depression affect labor rights?
The economic crisis prompted the federal government under FDR to take action. The National Industrial Recovery Act (1933) and later the Wagner Act (1935) provided critical protections for workers and unions, recognizing their right to organize and negotiate as part of the New Deal reforms.